Guided maturation of human neuromuscular organoids via electrical stimulation

Organoids derived from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are emerging as powerful models for studying development and disease. Despite their physiological relevance, the predictive power of organoids remains limited by the immature state of the constituent cells, posing a major challenge for mechanistic studies of adult physiology and late-onset diseases and disorders. Here, we establish a strategy for enhancing the maturation status of human neuromuscular organoids (NMOs) through chronic Electrical Pulse Stimulation (EPS). We demonstrate that low-frequency EPS, applied early on during NMO development and maintained over several weeks, promotes structural and functional maturation of neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). Independent of stimulation waveform dynamics, EPS-trained NMOs (EPS-NMOs) displayed stronger and more frequent spontaneous contractions that persisted long after stimulation ceased. Quantitative imaging and transcriptomic analyses revealed a robust improvement in EPS-NMO skeletal muscle and neural tissue morphology, coordinated regulation of lineage-specific biomarkers, and upregulation of gene programmes associated with mature neuromuscular function. Mechanobiological measurements further demonstrated increased EPS-NMO tissue stiffness and faster relaxation dynamics, consistent with advanced excitation–contraction coupling and force generation. Collectively, these findings establish EPS as a powerful, non-invasive, and on-demand modality for driving the morphological and functional maturation of complex organoid systems.